As a result...

As a result, in studying humans, we are faced with two sets of qualities: Material or corporeal attributes such as heat, size, color, weight, etc. Incorporeal or spiritual attributes such as fear, love, courage, aspiration, hope, etc. These two classes are essentially different. For example, the attributes in the first class are obvious and can be perceived with the senses. However, the attributes of the second class, such as sorrow, belief, fear, impatience, etc. are not such.

The first type of states can be perceived by everyone; yet, the second type can only be cognized by the person experiencing them. Each individual’s intentions are clear to themselves but obscure to others. No one can hide their height or width, nevertheless intentions, sorrow, and happiness can be concealed. Additionally, the manner in which an individual realizes each of these qualities is not the same. For example, we can feel pain without any intermediates.

Therefore, if someone asks us, “How do you know you have pain?”, we would deem the question irrational. However, becoming aware of a physical disorder such as a gastric ulcer requires reasoning. Consequently, if someone asks, “How do you know that you have an ulcer?”, we would have to present our reasons, which may be the physician’s diagnosis. Therefore, at least the three factors of spatiality, general exposure, and indirect accessibility dissociate corporeal qualities from spiritual qualities.

The public, scientists, and philosophers all agree on this matter. Everyone concurs with the duality of all languages regarding humans, which indicates duality in humanity’s attributes and characteristics. Here, the question exists: Are these two classes based on one essential aspect or two disparate essential aspects that, while linked, are independent of one other and can be intellectually separated?

Advocates of the first theory are called monists and supporters of the second theory are called dichotomists or dualists.[^1] The first view states that the first-class attributes—that describe the human body—are fundamental human attributes and each of the second-class attributes depend upon the quality of the first class. Consequently, second-class attributes cannot exist without first-class attributes.

For example, “hope” is a function of specific states within the human body, especially the brain and the nervous system.