The circle of causes implies a series A, B, C, D, .

The circle of causes implies a series A, B, C, D, . . . . then back to A, B.... etc., going round in a circle. Take any pair in the circle, say A and D. There are three possibilities: i) A exists before D. ii) D exists before A. iii) A and D exist simultaneously. If A exists before D then there is no meaning in saying that A is dependent on D, simply because D used to have no existence before it was caused to exist by A. The second assumption can be disproved by a similar argu- ment.

The third assumption means that neither of the two are the cause of the existence of the other. Hence they require a cause beyond their existence. A further objection might be raised on the account of the arbitrary proposition of N for it might be taken as the very matter itself. This assumption contradicts the premises of logic, namely the apriori proposition like causality.

It is needless to go further, but it can be proved easily that matter has the same essence but different forms, then it may be asked, "What are the causes which have given different forms to the same essence?" If it is said that there was no original form, then matter needs a factor beyond its essence to provide its present form. If it is said that these forms were eternal, then what were the causes which made them differ- ent.

If they were intrinsic, then they must have been either potential or active. The former requires an agitating cause, while the latter needs the existence of contradictory things simultaneously, which is against the premises of logic. Hence the fact that matter has both an essence and a form necessitates that it is contingent. d. Science It is known by intuition that for every intelligent work there is a maker. Consider any example in nature such as the human brain.

Then compare it with a highly sophisticated invention, like the computer. It is obvious that the latter is a product of the human brain. It is then impossible for the brain to exist without an intelligent maker. Some people like to escape towards an imaginary thing called accident. If accident can be discarded as an impossibility, then the only way left is to attribute it, as Max Planck, the great physicist puts it: "to God." Probability and chance is a very well defin- ed branch of mathematics.

If a specific card is to be drawn from a pack of ten cards at random, then the probability of drawing that card is 1/10.