ভূমিকা

Shiavault - a Vault of Shia Islamic Books Philosophical Instructions Lesson Sixteen: Empiricism Positivism In the previous lessons we briefly mentioned the kinds of ideas while at the same time introducing opposing opinions held concerning them. Here we explain more fully some of the famous noteworthy positions to be found in Western sources.

We know that most of the thinkers of the West basically deny the existence of universal ideas, and so naturally they do not accept the power by means of which these ideas are perceived, called the ‘intellect’. In the present age, positivisits have not only developed the same taste, but also have gone beyond it.

They hold that true perception is limited to sense perception, to perception which is obtained as a result of contact with the sense organs by material phenomena, and which, following the cessation of the relation with the external world, remain in some weaker form.

They believe that man constructs verbal symbols for objects of perception which are similar to one another, and that when he speaks or thinks, he brings to mind all cases of the same kind, or he repeats the same verbal symbols which were posited for those cases. And in reality, thinking is a kind of mental speaking. Hence, that which philosophers call universal ideas or intelligible concepts, in their view, are nothing but those same mental words.

Only when these words directly represent objects of sense perception, and their instances can be perceived by the sense organs, and can be shown to others, are they considered as meaningful and verifiable, otherwise they are considered words without meaning. In truth, they only accept a portion of the whatish concepts, and these only as mental words whose meanings are their particular sensory instances.

However, they do not accept the secondary intelligibles, especially metaphysical concepts, not even as meaningful mental words. On this basis, they consider metaphysical topics as unscientific and absolutely meaningless. They limit experience to sensual experience, and do not pay attention to inner experiences which are acquired through knowledge by presence.

At least they are considered unscientific because in their view, the word “scientific” is only applicable to cases which can be proven for others by the senses. In this way, positivists consider discussion of instincts and motives and other psychological matters which are perceived by inner experience as unscientific.