Some such matters could be found even in the exegesis ascribed to the companions.

Some such matters could be found even in the exegesis ascribed to the companions. During the reign of the caliphs, when the neighbouring countries were conquered, the Muslims came in contact with the vanquished people and were involved in religious discussions with the scholars of various other religions and sects. This gave rise to the theological discourses- known in Islam as 'Ilmu'l-kalam ( عِلمُ الكلام ). Also, the Greek philosophy was translated into Arabic.

The process began towards the end of the first century of hijrah (Umayyad's period) and continued well into the third century (Abbasid's reign). This created a taste for intellectual and philosophical arguments in the Muslim intelligentsia.

At the same time, at-tasawwuf ( التصوف = Sufism, mysticism) raised its head in the society; and people were attracted to­wards it as it held out a promise of revealing to them the realities of religion through severe self-discipline and ascetical rigours -instead of entangling them into verbal polemics and intellectual arguments.

And there emerged a group, who called themselves people of tradition, who thought that salvation depended on believing in the apparent meanings of the Qur'an and the tradition, with­out any academic research. The utmost they allowed was looking into literary value of the words. Thus, before the second century had proceeded very far, the Muslim society had broadly split in four groups: The theolo­gians, the philosophers, the Sufis and the people of tradition.

There was an intellectual chaos in the ummah and the Muslims, generally speaking, had lost their bearing. The only thing to which all were committed was the word, “There is no god except Allah, and Muhammad (saw) is the Messenger of Allah””. They differed with each other in everything else.

There was dispute on the meanings of the names and attributes of Allah, as well as about His actions; there was conflict about the reality of the heavens and the earth and what is in and on them; there were controversies about the decree of Allah and the divine measure; opinions differed whether man is a helpless tool in divine hands, or is a free agent; there were wranglings about various aspects of reward and punishment; arguments were kicked like ball, from one side to the other concerning the realities of death, al-barzakh ( البرزَخ = intervening period between death and the Day of Resurrection); resurrection, paradise and hell.