[20] Taliferro...

📌[20] Taliferro, Charles (1998), Contemporary Philosophy of Religion , Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Notes [^1]: Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy, Tarbiat Modares University [^3]: This article also does not deal with Muslim theologians' views, since beside a few common aspects, the whole theological approach here differs deeply from that of philosophers (both in the formulations of the problem and in the proposed resolutions).

Nevertheless, I shall sometimes refer to the views of some thinkers (Like Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and al-Tusi) who are commonly known as Muslim "theologian-philosopher". [^4]: It is worth noting that in the current literature "theodicy" in its narrow sense is used against the "defense". [^5]: Roughly speaking, the logical problem claims a kind of inconsistency between the belief in an omnipotent, omniscience and wholly good God and the belief in the existence of evils.

According to the evidential problem, however, the existence of evils provides strong evidence against the existence of God and thus, renders the theistic beliefs unreasonable. [^6]: To paraphrase this question in a more contemporary form, we may simply ask: Why does God permit evils? [^7]: For example, the title of the relevant chapter in Avicenna's The Healing is: "On providence, showing the manner of the entry of evil in divine predetermination". (Avicenna, 2005, p 339).

Mulla Sadra adopted a bit different and longer title: "On Divine providence and allembracing mercy and the manner of the entry of evil and harm in the [realm of the] predetermined beings in terms of divine decree and predetermination". (Mulla Sadra, 1981, p. 55) [^8]: For a detailed statement of this problem, see: (Mulla Sadra, 1363 , pp. 275-276) [^9]: Muslim philosophers believe that, regarding the hierarchical order of existence, it is impossible for a higher level (i. e.

more perfect) being to something in behalf of a lower (less perfect) one. According to this principle, God's action, as a simple eternal reality, has no end except the very Divine essence. However, this does not deny the fact that the particular actions of God must have reasonable ends and purposes. [^10]: What is meant here by Sadra seems to be much similar to what Leibniz called "metaphysical evil".

[^11]: As we shall see later, following Aristotle, Muslim philosophers believe that some of God's creatures, such as pure nonmaterial intellects (oqul) are totally free from any kind of evils.

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