So the morality of an action is determined retrospectively...

So the morality of an action is determined retrospectively, based on the outcomes of the action, and a morally positive action is one that produces good consequences (Eshelmen, 2004). Utilitarians such as Bentham and Mills saw morality in consequential terms by suggesting morally good acts were those that brought the greatest good to the greatest number, with no other criteria for judging the worth of moral values than this.

Deontological theories focus on the morality of an action as inherent in the act itself and not in the outcomes of that act. Locke’s theory that humans have inalienable natural rights, which determine codes of social behaviour exemplifies this. Locke argued that breaches of these inalienable rights would be classified as ‘wrong’ and upholding these rights would be classified as ‘right’, regardless of outcome.

Kant also focused on the morality of action themselves rather than outcomes, arguing that moral acts are what any rational being could envisage as being universal moral laws, following on from Hobbe’s assertion that moral behaviour is that which unbiased others would agree was moral. Kant suggested that the test for the morality of an action was the categorical imperative i.e. that any such action could become a universal moral law.

If this should not be the case, then the action would not be seen as moral. The issue that arises from both these theoretical bases is the implication that a value judgement about what is ‘right’ and what is ‘wrong’ or what is a ‘good’ outcome or a ‘bad’ outcome has to be made. This begs the question as to whether all assumptions of morality are subjective and relative.

Ayer (1948) argues that there is no ‘truth value’ to moral statements as they merely reflect the individuals’ moral beliefs and are entirely subjective. He suggested that moral discussion focuses on the advisability of accepting or rejecting an action or viewpoint but ‘discredits the logical authority of moral statements because the criteria for logical verification cannot be established.’ (McPhail, 1982:21).

If we, then, reject the existence of universal moral laws, then are all moral standpoints individually or socially determined within specific cultural contexts? If this is the case, then the promotion of morality through education could be viewed as part of the socialisation of an individual into a group (community) by inculcating a particular culturally determined view or perspective of what morality is.