Islam, as a universal religion and as a living force, had to...

Islam, as a universal religion and as a living force, had to adapt it­self to new thoughts and to new surroundings. So, as time went on, there arose gradually a party, from amongst the orthodox section of the Muslims, who real­ized the necessity of putting Islam on a solid ground by advancing “reasons” for the traditional beliefs, of defending these beliefs against all sorts of attacks internal and external, and thus purging their faith of all the non‑Islamic elements that had crept into it.

They founded the orthodox theology of Islam by using Kalam or the philosophical method in order to meet the dialectical reasoning of the Mu'tazilites. These theologians who employed Kalam for the defence of their faith were, therefore, known as the Mutakallimun (orthodox theologians).[^5] But, although these thinkers used philosophical method in their discussions, they obtained the primary materials from revelation.

They deve­loped a rival science of reasoning to meet the Mu'tazilites on their own ground. In the beginning this new orthodox theological movement developed privately and secretly. It was at first a gradual unconscious drift. It could not come to the open for fear of public criticism. Al‑Junaid, for instance, had to discuss the unity of God behind closed doors. Al‑Shafi'i held that some trained people might defend and purify the faith but that should not be done in public.

Al‑Muhasibi and other contemporaries of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal incurred his displeasure for defending the faith with arguments or reason. But gradually the movement gathered strength and began to be openly preached almost at the same time in different places of the Muslim world‑in Mesopotamia by Abu al‑Hasan `Ali bin Isma`il al‑Ashari (d. 330 or 334/941 or 945), in Egypt by al‑Tahawi (d. 331/942), and in Samarqand by Abu Mansnr al‑Maturidi (d. 333/ 944).

But of these three, al‑Ash'ari became the most popular hero, before whom the Mu'tazilite system (the rationalist Kalam ) went down, and he came to be known as the founder of the orthodox philosophical theology, and the school founded by him was named after him as Ash`arism. Al‑Ash'ari was born at Basrah. Regarding his date of birth there is difference of opinion.